LearningObjects

Learning Objects

**Introduction **

Technological advances have caused a paradigm shift in the way people learn, and the increasing need for easily accessible, cost effective, web-based resources has given way to the concept of Learning Objects. Much work has been done to define and describe learning objects, and a variety of definitions exist. Learning objects vary so much in terms of size and scope, content, design, and technical implementation that pinning down the essence of “learning-objectness” is not an easy task (Smith, 2004). This chapter will provide a clear understanding of what Learning objects are, and the reasons they are used. Additionally, we will explore key issues regarding Learning Objects and uncover solutions to these issues in order to promote efficient and effective use of Learning Objects.

**The Most Common Question: What are Learning Objects? **

//Definitions //

Most definitions of learning objects agree that they are pieces of information intended to support learning. The Technology Standards Committee (LTSC) of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines a learning object as any entity, digital or non-digital, which can be used, re-used or referenced during technology-supported learning (LOM, 2000). However, Wiley (2000) notes this definition to be very broad while defining a learning object as any digital resource that can be reused to support learning. This definition parallels the New Media Consortium (NMC) definition which describes a learning object to be any grouping of materials that is structured in a meaningful way and is tied to an educational objective. Taking these different definitions into account, the most common definition is that a learning object is a collection of digital materials - pictures, documents, simulations — coupled with a clear and measurable learning objective or designed to support a learning process (Johnson, 2003).

//Learning Objects VS Information Objects VS Content Objects //

Confusion continues to exist in practice about how learning objects might differ from content files such as a photo, a video clip, or a research report (Johnson, 2003). When discussing learning objects, it is important not to confuse them with “information objects” or “content objects.” Thus it is important to understand the definitions of these objects. Information objects can be defined as a piece of media (such as a research report, a spreadsheet, or a brochure) that provides information, while a content object is simply classified as a single picture, video or audio clip, animation, or a text document. The key distinguishing feature between these kinds of objects and a learning object is the clear connection to a learning process (Johnson, 2003).

//Perspectives of Learning Objects //

To help grasp the idea of exactly what a learning object is, many perspectives have been introduced. Hodgins and Conner (2000) compare learning objects to LEGO™ building blocks. LEGO™ blocks are small, colorful, interlocking bricks that can be assembled in thousands of ways to create objects such as buildings or vehicles. These bricks can then be taken apart and reassembled time and time again to form different objects such as robots or spaceships. Because learning objects are considered small units that can be fitted together any number of ways to produce customized learning experiences, the idea of Learning Objects parallels the concept of this popular children’s toy. However, this analogy seems to be very broad because not every learning object fits well with another since learning objects vary greatly in content, scope, and design. Thus, some prefer another perspective which compares learning objects to atoms. Atoms are made up of smaller pieces which by themselves are not as useful as the whole. The pieces can be combined, but only in certain ways to form compounds which can then be combined or deconstructed again (Wiley, 2000).

**Searching for the Right Learning Object **

 Examples of Learning Objects include multimedia content, instructional content, learning objectives, instructional software and software tools, and persons, organizations, or events referenced during technology supported learning (LOM, 2000). These objects are housed in different online repositories (which will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 4) and are developed, shared, and reused as components to create a larger entity. Users searching for learning objects in online repositories will be guided in their choices by the content of the object, the characteristics of the learners addressed, and the learning process embodied in the object (Carey, 2002).

 Learning objects are described using metadata, which literally means data about data. The main purpose of metadata is to aid in the search and reuse of learning objects, as well as support their interoperability. Metadata lays the foundation for information retrieval, and aids in efficient cataloging of learning objects. Wiley (2000) relates metadata to a library catalogue to deliver a better understanding of the term. The pieces of information stored on the cards are about the Author, Title, and Publication Date of the book or resource in question. Smith (2004) notates that in the context of digital learning objects, metadata refers to information about the learning object: what the content is about, who the authors and developers are, who the target audiences are, who owns the object, how it may be used, and so on. Where applicable, learning <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> object metadata may also include pedagogical attributes such as; teaching or interaction style, grade level, mastery level, and prerequisites (LOM, 2000).

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">What are the Benefits of Learning Objects **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> By searching for and utilizing learning objects from different internet based technologies, users are provided access to the necessary tools to efficiently create and maintain curriculum. Smith (2004) identifies that three of the “most compelling reasons for using learning objects are that they are flexible, they cost effective, and they can be combined in customized ways.”

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Learning objects are flexible //

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> Learning objects are considered flexible because they offer material through multiple modes of learning. Users who access learning objects can chose between many sources of media to best fit their educational needs. For example, if a student learns predominantly well through the hands on approach, they may find an interactive learning object to be most useful. Another example may include a student who prefers learning material with visuals. In this case, they may choose learning objects that include pictures or graphs.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Learning objects are cost effective //

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Learning objects are considered cost effective because they are non-consumable, reusable resources and many are available free of charge through the “open” community. A teacher may reuse selected learning objects for different courses in the same semester, or they may reuse them in the same course from one semester to the next. The same learning objects can also be shared or remixed, depending on the copyright license, and used in alternate disciplines. Chapter 7, Intellectual Property and Open Content, will go into further detail in discussing copyrights on content that is <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">reformatted, reproduced, manipulated, and remixed.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Learning objects are customizable //

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> Learning objects are considered customizable because they can be combined in ways that the user finds most effective. Learning objects can be selected to best meet personal, organizational, or instructional needs. For example, teachers have the ability to combine learning objects to support their course curriculum or particular instructional style.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Who benefits from the use of Learning Objects? **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> Additionally, learning objects prove to be beneficial because they are comprised of information that is presented in multiple ways which allows users to view the topic from many perspectives. Shepherd (2000) summarizes the benefits of learning objects for learners, administrators and developers in the table below:


 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Benefits of Learning Objects ** ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">For learners // || //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">For administrators // || //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">For developers // ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Personalization - courses can be constructed to meet individual requirementsLearning comes in digestible chunksLearning is available on a just-in-time basis || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Courses can be customized to suit the needs of different audiencesCourses can be constructed using components from a wide range of sourcesComponents can be reused to meet a range of learning needs  || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Objects can be built or modified using many different authoring toolsThe same objects can be employed across a variety of hardware and software platforms  ||

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Challenges in the Design and Creation of Learning Objects **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">The distinguishing factor of a learning object is that it can be used multiple times, and for different situations (Wiley, 2000). Different lists of “ilities” have been fashioned by working groups that are focused on creating standards for learning objects. Some words that are included in these lists include durability, interoperability, accessibility, reusability, affordability, etc. During our research, we have found that depending upon the author, different “ility” words have different contexts depending upon the author or working group. Regardless of the definition of each word, the primary “benefit of learning object upon which most [organizations] focus is their potential for reuse” (South & Monson, 2000). Therefore, the major challenge with learning objects comes in their design and availability in order to make a learning object reusable. Some of the major challenges in ensuring that a learning object is reusable are the ability to find them (discoverability), the ability to use with multiple interfaces or learning systems (interoperability), ensuring proper use of copyrights and creating pedagogically sound learning objects (context and granularity).

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Discoverability //

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">The World Wide Web provides a resource for limitless information on a plethora of topics. Since learning objects are intended to be reused, they first must be easy to find and access amongst the numerous other information made available on the World Wide Web. Even if learning objects are discovered as learning objects, there are still a variety of different types and categories of learning objects. Without any organization or classification, learning objects could potentially be extremely difficult and time consuming to find. This defeats the purpose of learning objects being cost effective.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">The solution to the organization and classification of learning objects is to classify them via metadata. Metadata literally means “data about data” and is used to provide information about a specific resource, learning objects in this case (Wiley, 2000). But again, organization is needed to develop a method for identifying learning objects in order to increase the efficiency in finding them. Therefore, numerous groups have worked to develop guidelines on how to standardize metadata to make learning objects easily findable by author, subject, format, medium, etc. One example is the Learning Objects Metadata (LOM) Working Group, which is created under the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), a non-profit worldwide organization. The standards developed by LOM Working Group will provide guidelines on categories that are required to be included in metadata as well as items that are optional. The primary categories that should be included in metadata include “type of object, author, owner, terms of distribution, and format” (LOM Working Group 12).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Chapter 4, Digital Repositories, provides more information on how learning objects are stored.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Interoperability //

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> Interoperability is defined as “content from multiple sources working equally well with different learning systems” (Eduworks). One of the challenges in reusing or combining learning objects is the compatibility of the learning object with a specific operating system or learning management system (LMS). Chapter 8, Jigsaw/Mashup ISD, provides more information on combining learning objects, however, from a technical standpoint, a learning object should be easily manipulated in order to fit with other learning objects. For example, in a study conducted by Recker et al. (2004), teachers identified that timeliness in not only accessing but modifying learning objects was the principle feature they looked at when deciding whether or not to reuse a learning object found on the internet. Additionally, the study found that the teachers were more likely “download resources in a common format, or one that was compatible with word processors.” If a learning object is not compatible with a consumer’s intended learning management system, much time can be wasted in trying to reformat it for reuse (Boyle & Cook, 2001) and the likelihood for reuse of this resource is extremely low.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Since learning objects are made available on the World Wide Web, there are countless users or consumers, most often unbeknownst to the author or designer. Part of this unknown is the operating system or learning management system that the consumer intends to use for deployment of the re-used learning object. This can create a challenge to design interoperable learning objects. However, to facilitate the reuse of learning objects, designers should utilize a computer language that can be easily used with all operating and learning management systems. Extensible Markup Language (XML) is one of the ideal formats for creating interoperable learning object because XML is recognized as a standard programming language, and is based off a simplistic and usable design (Polsani, 2003).

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Copyright/Intellectual Property //

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> Although resources and information are made readily available on the internet, users must be aware of copyrighted material. Often, consumers “unaware or confused by expansive license agreements” (Rappa) mistakenly believe that anything they can access on the internet is free for their use. Depending upon the intended use of a learning object, copyright restrictions can pose a challenge in accessing or reusing learning objects. Chapter 7, Intellectual Property and Open Content, provides more information regarding copyright laws in the reuse of learning objects.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Context and granularity //

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> Since learning objects are intended to be reused by an unknown audience, one of the biggest challenges in creating learning objects is to create them in a way that they can be reused for different situations while still maintaining the pedagogical value. Learners make connections and grow from what they already know. In order to make learning objects most effect, they should build upon these connections. Therefore, “the more context a learning object has, the more (and the more easily) a learner can learn from it.” Reuse of learning objects consists of taking a learning object and using it for another purpose from which it was originally designed. It is very difficult to maintain the context from which it was first created. In order to maintain maximum reusability, “learning objects should contain as little context as possible” which opposes pedagogical effectiveness. David Wiley refers to this as the “reusability paradox” (Wiley, 2004).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> Related to the pedagogy of learning objects is its size, or granularity. There is a fine balance between having enough information in a learning object, yet creating one in such a way that it can be reused for multiple purposes. Larger objects can be more difficult to reuse, therefore smaller learning objects typically require less work to reuse. (Eduworks, 2011). A standard rule of thumb is to create a learning object between two and fifteen minutes long. Additionally, in order to maximize reuse, a learning object should be very specific and created around one sole idea. If a learning object has multiple ideas, it should be split up into smaller learning objects (Polsani, 2003).

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Solutions //

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">While some solutions specific to issues are mentioned above, the overarching solutions consist of creating specifications to standardize learning objects. Various organizations have created working groups which focus on standardizing certain aspects of learning objects. One method of standardization is the creation of Learning Object Content Models. One of the more prevalent Content Models is the Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM). The SCORM provides a model of standardization in order to support the reusability and interoperability of learning objects.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;"> SCORM contains the components of assets, shareable content objects (SCO) and content aggregations. The assets are the basic ‘building blocks’ of media, text, etc. A SCO is then created from multiple assets. In order to assure reusability, an SCO should be free of learning context. (Verbert & Duval, 2004). A map, or content aggregation is then created to organize the SCOs. The structure created by the content aggregation is what facilitates interoperability of the learning objects (Eduworks, 2011).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 115%;">References

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Boyle, T., & Cook, J. (2001). Towards A Pedagogically Sound Basis for Learning Object Portability and Re-use. Retrieved May 25, 2011, from <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">[]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Carey, T., Swallow, J., Oldfield, W. (2002). Educational Rational Metadata from Learning Objects. //Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology 28 (7)//. Retrieved June 2, 2011 from <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">[]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Eduworks, Learning Object Tutorial. Retrieved May 22, 2011, from [].

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Hodgins, W. & Conner, M. (2000). Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Learning Standards but Were Afraid to Ask. //Learning in the New Economy e-Magazine// (LiNE Zine), Fall 2000. Retrieved May 22, 2011, from __<span style="color: purple; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">[] __<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Johnson, L. (2003). Elusive Vision: Challenges Impeding the Learning Object Economy [a white paper]. San Francisco: Macromedia Inc. Retrieved May 22, 2011 from __<span style="color: purple; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">[]. __

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Learning Object Metadata (LOM) Working Group 12. (2011). IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee. Retrieved June 07, 2011, from <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">[].

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Polsani, P. (2003). Use and Abuse of Reusable Learning Object. Journal of Digital Information, 3(4). Retrieved Mary 23, 2011 from <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">[].

<span style="background: white; line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; margin-top: 24pt; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Rappa, M. (2009). Intellectual Property. //Managing the Digital Enterprise//. Retrieved May 31, 2011, from [].

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Recker, M., Dorward, J., & Nelson, L. (2004). Discovery and Use of Online Learning Resources: Case Study Findings. //Educational Technology & Society, 7(2),// 93-104. ISSN: 1436-4522.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">SCORM (2011). Advanced Distributed Learning. Retrieved June 12, 2011, from [].

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Smith, R. S. (2004). Guidelines for Authors of Learning Objects. Austin: NMC: The New Media Consortium. Retrieved May 22, 2011 from __<span style="color: purple; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">[] __

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">South, J. B. & Monson, D. W. (2000). A university-wide system for creating, capturing, and delivering learning objects. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), //The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version//. Retrieved May 23, 2011 from the World Wide Web: http://reusability.org/read/chapters/south.doc

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Verbert, K., & Duval, E. (2004). Towards a Global Component Architecture for Learning Objects: A Comparative Analysis of Learning Object Content Models. Retrieved May 23, 2011, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.132.9654&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 200%;">Wiley, D. A. (2000). Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), //The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version//. Retrieved May 23, 2011, from the World Wide Web: []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">________________________________________________________________________________ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Much work has been done to define and describe learning objects, and a variety of definitions exist. Learning objects vary so much in terms of size and scope, content, design, and technical implementation that pinning down the essence of “learning-objectness” is not an easy task. (Smith, 2004) This chapter will provide a clear understanding of what Learning objects are, and the reasons they are used. Additionally, we will explore key issues regarding Learning Objects and uncover solutions to these issues in order to promote efficient and effective use of Learning Objects.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Most definitions of learning objects agree that they are interoperable digital pieces of information intended to support online learning. The most common definition is that a learning object is a collection of digital materials - pictures, documents, simulations — coupled with a clear and measurable learning objective or designed to support a learning process. (Johnson, 2003) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">In order for something to be considered a “learning object” it must be instructional with intended learning outcomes.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">To help grasp the idea of exactly what a learning object is, many perspectives have been introduced. Hodgins and Conner (2000) <range type="comment" id="700114">‍compare learning objects to LEGO™ building blocks ‍: small units that can be fitted together any number of ways to produce customized learning experiences. Another perspective compares learning objects to atoms. Atoms are made up of smaller pieces which by themselves are not as useful as the whole; they can be combined, but only in certain ways; and they form compounds which can then be combined or deconstructed again (Wiley, 2000).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The different types of learning objects range from various pieces of electronic media, to text, graphics, and animations. These pieces are housed in different online repositories and are developed, shared, and reused as components to create a larger entity. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Users searching for learning objects in online repositories will be guided in their choices by the content of the object, the characteristics of the learners addressed, and the learning process embodied in the object (Carey, 2002).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Learning objects are <range type="comment" id="430897">‍typically ‍ described using metadata, which literally means data about data. The main purpose of metadata is to aid in the search and reuse of learning objects, as well as support their interoperability. Metadata lays the foundation for information retrieval, and aids in efficient cataloging of learning objects. Wiley (2000) relates metadata to a library catalogue to deliver a better understanding of the term. The pieces of information stored on the cards are about the Author, Title, and Publication Date of the book or resource in question.Smith (2004) notates that in the context of digital learning objects, metadata refers to information about the learning object: what the content is about, who the authors and developers are, who the target audiences are, who owns the object, how it may be used, and so on.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">By searching for and utilizing learning objects from different internet based technologies, users are provided access to the necessary tools to efficiently create and maintain curriculum. Smith (2004) identifies that three of the “most compelling reasons for using learning objects are that they are flexible, they cost effective, and they can be combined in customized ways.”

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Learning objects are flexible // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Learning objects are considered flexible because they offer material through multiple modes of learning. Users who access learning objects can chose between many sources of media to best fit their educational needs. <range type="comment" id="344341">‍For example ‍, if a student learns predominantly well through the hands on approach, they may find an interactive learning object to be most useful. Another example may include a student who prefers learning material with visuals. In this case, they may choose learning objects that include pictures or graphs.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Learning objects are cost effective // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Learning objects are considered cost effective because they are non-consumable, reusable resources and many are available free of charge. A teacher may reuse selected learning objects for different courses in the same semester, or they may reuse them in the same course from one semester to the next. The same learning objects <range type="comment" id="529366">‍can also be shared or remixed ‍ and used in alternate disciplines.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Learning objects are customizable // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Learning objects <range type="comment" id="583004">‍offer customizability because they ‍ can be combined in ways that the user finds most effective. Learning objects can be selected to best meet organizational or instructional needs. For example, teachers have the ability to combine learning objects to support their course curriculum or particular instructional style.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Additionally, learning objects prove to be beneficial because they are comprised of information that is presented in multiple ways which allows users to view the topic from many perspectives. Shepherd (2000) summarizes the benefits of learning objects for learners, administrators and developers in the table below: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Learning comes in digestible chunksLearning is available on a just-in-time basis || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Courses can be customized to suit the needs of different audiences <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Courses can be constructed using components from a wide range of sources <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Components can be reused to meet a range of learning needs || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Objects can be built or modified using many different authoring tools <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The same objects can be employed across a variety of hardware and software platforms ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Benefits of Learning Objects ** ||
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">For learners // || //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">For administrators // || //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">For developers // ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Personalization - courses can be constructed to meet individual requirements

**Challenges in the Design and Creation of Learning Objects** The distinguishing factor of a learning object is that it can be used multiple times, and for different situations (Wiley, 2000). One major challenge with learning objects comes in their design and availability in order to make a learning object actually be a learning object. Some of the major aspects in the design and creation of learning objects include retrievability, interoperability, granularity (size) and reusability (pedagogy and copyright). **<range type="comment" id="662607">‍Retrievability ‍** The World Wide Web provides a resource for limitless information on a plethora of topics. Since learning objects are intended to be reused, they first must be easy to find and access amongst the numerous other information made available on the World Wide Web. <range type="comment" id="711923">‍Even if learning objects are discovered as learning objects, there are still a variety of different types and categories of learning objects ‍. Without any organization or classification, learning objects could potentially be extremely difficult and time consuming to find. This defeats the purpose of learning objects being cost effective. The solution to the organization and classification of learning objects is to classify them via metadata. <range type="comment" id="440084">‍Metadata literally means “data about data” and is used to provide information about a specific resource, learning objects in this case (Wiley, 2000). But again organization is needed to develop a method for identifying learning objects in order to increase the efficiency in finding them. ‍Therefore, numerous groups have worked to develop guidelines on how to standardize metadata to make learning objects easily findable by author, subject, format, medium, etc. One example is the Learning Objects Metadata (LOM) Working Group, which is created under the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), a non-profit worldwide organization. The standards developed by LOM Working Group will provide guidelines on categories that are required to be included in metadata as well as items that are optional. The primary categories that should be included in metadata include “type of object, author, owner, terms of distribution, and format” (LOM Working Group 12). Chapter 4, Digital Repositories, provides more information on how learning objects are stored. **<range type="comment" id="414065">‍Interoperability ‍**


 * Original Outline Below**

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Introduction ** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">To maintain dynamic stability in today’s fast paced world, it is important for our learning environment to maintain the speed and degree of the way things are changing in the world around us. With this being said, it is crucial that learning objects keep up at the same pace. Much work has been done to define and describe learning objects, and a variety of definitions exist. Learning objects vary so much in terms of size and scope, content, design, and technical implementation that pinning down the essence of “learning-objectness” is not an easy task. (Smith, 2004) This chapter will provide a clear understanding of what Learning objects are, and the reasons they are used. Additionally, we will explore key issues regarding Learning Objects and uncover solutions to these issues in order to promote efficient and effective use of Learning Objects. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Background information **

>
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">What are learning Objects?
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">The most common definition is that a learning object is a collection of digital materials — pictures, documents, simulations — coupled with a clear and measurable learning objective or designed to support a learning process. (Johnson, 2003)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">In order for something to be considered a “learning object” it must be instructional with intended learning outcomes.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Hodgins and Conner (2000) compare learning objects to LEGO™ building blocks: small units that can be fitted together any number of ways to produce customized learning experiences.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Another perspective compares learning objects to atoms: they are made up of smaller pieces which by themselves are not as useful as the whole; they can be combined, but only in certain ways (atoms can only join with certain other atoms, not with any atom that happens along); and they form compounds which can then be combined or deconstructed again (Wiley, 2000)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Types of Learning Objects
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Electronic media
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Text
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Graphics
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Animations

> <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Shepherd (2000) summarizes the benefits of learning objects for learners, administrators and developers in the table below: The "Learning Paradox" - Learner's make connections and grow from what they already know. In order to make learning objects most effective, they should build upon these connections. Therefore, "the more context a learning object has, the more (and the more easily) a learner can learn from it." Reuse of learning objects consists of taking a learning object and using it for another purpose from which it was originally designed. If a learning object is reused, it is very difficult to maintain the context from which it was first created. In order to maintain maximum reusability, "learning objects, should contain as little context as possible" which is completely opposing pedagogical effectiveness (Wiley, 2004). a. Metadata - creation of standards for LMS interoperability. The Advanced Distributed Learning Initiave (ADL) is leading efforts to create/apply standards fro LMS (learning managment system) interoperatibilty, under the SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) Reusability : Contextual learning objects vs mutated learning objects (Shaw) self-contained <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Summary **
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Why are Learning Objects important/Reasons for using Learning Objects
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Learning objects are important because they are comprised of information that is presented in multiple ways which allows learners to view the topic from many perspectives.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Smith identifies three of the “most compelling reasons for using learning objects are that they are flexible, they cost effective, and they can be combined in customized ways.”
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Benefits of learning objects
 * < <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Benefits of learning objects ** ||
 * < <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">For learners // ||< <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">For administrators // ||< <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">For developers // ||
 * < <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Personalization - courses can be constructed to meet individual requirementsLearning comes in digestible chunksLearning is available on a just-in-time basis ||< <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Courses can be customized to suit the needs of different audiencesCourses can be constructed using components from a wide range of sourcesComponents can be reused to meet a range of learning needs ||< <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Objects can be built or modified using many different authoring toolsThe same objects can be employed across a variety of hardware and software platforms ||
 * Key Issues:**
 * a. accessability/Metadata**
 * b. portability/interoperability**
 * c. reusability**
 * Learning objects "must have a specific use and function in regards to an objective and an outcome in the context of the learner." (Shaw)
 * Solutions**


 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Summary of key points.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">References **

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Carey, T., Swallow, J., Oldfield, W. (2002). //Educational Rational Metadata for Learning Objects.// Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology. Vol. 28, No. 7. Retrieved June 2, 2011 from []

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Hodgins, W. & Conner, M. (2000). Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Learning Standards but Were Afraid to Ask. In Learning in the New Economy e-Magazine (LiNE Zine), Fall 2000. Retrieved May 22, 2011, from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: auto;">__[]__. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Johnson, L. (2003). Elusive Vision: Challenges Impeding the Learning Object Economy [a white paper]. San Francisco: Macromedia Inc. Retrieved May 22, 2011 from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: auto;">__[].__

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Learning Object Metadata (LOM) Working Group 12. (2011). IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee. Retrieved June 07, 2011, from [].

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Polsani, P. (2003). Use and Abuse of Reusable Learning Objects. Journal of Digital Information, 3(4). Retrieved May 23, 2011 from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: auto;">__[]__

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Shaw, M. (2003). Learning Objects in the Context of Design, Learning and (Re)use. //Teaching and Learning With Technology//. Retrieved May 23, 2011 from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: auto;">__[]__ .<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Shepherd, C. (2000). Objects of Interest. United Kingdom: Fastrack Consulting LTD. Retrieved May 22, 2011 from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: auto;">__[]__. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Smith, R. S. (2004). Guidelines for Authors of Learning Objects. Austin: NMC: The New Media Consortium. Retrieved May 22, 2011 from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: auto;">__[]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;">Wiley, D. A. (2000). Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version. Retrieved May 22, 2011, from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: auto;">__[]__.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">Wiley, D. A. (2004). The Reusability Paradox. Retrieved May 22, 2011, from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #800080; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; vertical-align: auto;">__[]__.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">New Terms & Definitions **<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: auto;">metadata: