RedesigningOpenContentMaterials

**Chapter 9: (Re)Designing Open Content Materials** __**Introduction**__  The world of learning is in a constant state of change. With the rapid evolution of technology in the field of computers and communications, the ability to bring together groups of people with a common interest in learning a subject has become easier than in past years. For example, the use of Google Docs allows students to not only share a document, but view and modify the document simultaneously. The concept of using open content materials in an open learning environment has significantly altered how learning takes place today. Instructional designers who wish to stay at the top of their field will need to embrace this “open” environment, and design materials that can be re-used, revised, re-mixed, and re-distributed across a wide spectrum of users. Designing open content materials can be significantly different than designing a traditional learning environment where the instructor delivers the information and the student receives it. This chapter will explore the concept and framework of open content, including several principles and models that can guide an instructional designer in its development, and identify available tools that can be used in the construction of the open material to be shared within a community. Additionally, we will discuss ways to build credibility and sustainability of open content to increase the viability of designed open materials.

__**Open Content**__ The "open" in "open content" is a similarly continuous construct. In this context, "open" refers to granting of copyright permissions above and beyond those offered by standard copyright law. "Open content," then, is content that is licensed in a manner that provides users with the right to make more kinds of uses than those normally permitted under the law - at no cost to the user. Put simply, the fewer copyright restrictions are placed on the user of a piece of content, the more open the content is. __(http://www.opencontent.org/definition/)__ 4R Framework identifies the primary permissions or usage rights with which open content is concerned: “Content is open to the extent that its license allows users to engage in the 4R activities. Content is less open to the extent that its license places restrictions (e.g., forbidding derivatives or prohibiting commercial use) or requirements (e.g., mandating that derivatives adopt a certain license or demanding attribution to the original author) on a user's ability to engage in the 4R activities.” __[|(http://www.opencontent.org/definition/)]__
 * 1) Reuse - the right to reuse the content in its unaltered/verbatim form (e.g., make a backup copy of the content)
 * 2) Revise - the right to adapt, adjust, modify, or alter the content itself (e.g., translate the content into another language)
 * 3) Remix - the right to combine the original or revised content with other content to create something new (e.g., incorporate the content into a mashup)
 * 4) Redistribute - the right to share copies of the original content, your revisions, or your remixes with others (e.g., give a copy of the content to a friend)

__**Design Theory**__ According to David Kahle, “the role of design theory is to introduce frameworks for prioritizing and analyzing design problems.” (Iiyoshi, 2008, p29) Creators of open content who utilize prescribed theories of design may not be able to transcend the boundary into electronic mediums as successfully as those authors who favor design principles instead. Kahle argues that the use of design principles derived from key values of open education proves more practical when applied to educational technology design than a single design theory that may not be able to address different types of content or different end goals of learning. “A number of values, or principles, often associated with open education may serve as a foundation for open technology design theory and practice. These principles include access, agency, ownership, participation and experience.” (Kahle, 2008, p27) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Designing for access has two implications for open content. First, it addresses the need for open content that “not only enables the acquisition of open resources but effective thinking, learning, and doing with them.” (Kahle in Iiyoshi, 2008, p33) Universal design, as articulated by Mace promotes this axiom by encouraging open content to be created with “qualities such as ‘flexible in use,’ ‘equitable use,’ ‘simple and intuitive,’ and ‘tolerance for error.’” (Mace, as referenced by Kahle, as seen in Iiyoshi, 2008, p33) Secondly, creators must consider the physical capability of the user to locate and utilize the content. Not only must the content meet the needs of the user, but the user must be able to find it and access it. After all, what good is content of any kind if it cannot be found or viewed? <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Designing for agency plays an “influential role in determining the degree of user action and control over these open educational resources” (Kahle in Iiyoshi, 2008, p35). It involves the allowance for users to exercise control over the content, and since open content is typically sought out by those users who wish to personalize it to meet specific needs, it is a highly sought after principle of design. Creators of open content should be aware of this fact and accommodate it in their design theory by focusing on what their shared resource can do, not necessarily on prescribing how it should be utilized. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Designing for ownershipcan be described as “establish[ing] practices that reward the original creators of material with proper acknowledgement and that cultivate a sharing, global community that blurs the line between producers and consumers of open resources” (Kahle in Iiyoshi, 2008, p38). Open content is intended to be shared and adapted. And users who receive attribution for their contributions are more likely to invest their time and resources in creating and sharing open content for use by others. At the same time, shared ownership and responsibility between an original creator and a user of the open content can make the resource more meaningful. Anyone who builds and shares open content runs the risk of losing credit for their work. But as Jim Collins would say leaders are “ambitious first and foremost for the company, not themselves” and “leaders set up their successors for even greater success in the next generation” (Collins, 2001, p39). The leaders of the relatively new open content movement have set aside their desire for absolute credit and seek fame for the movement itself and its possibilities. They are prepared to enable the next generation (to follow the analogy used above) to be more successful by sharing their knowledge freely. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Design for participationinvolves the “establishment of representative communities capable of informing the design process, designs which encourage contributions, and an understanding of the importance of active participation in learning” (Kahle in Iiyoshi, 2008, p39). The advent of new technologies and open software has broadened the field for adapting open content in new ways. Users now have the capability of adding to or challenging open content and joining communities that exist specifically to engage in this type of behavior. Their involvement is an integral part of the participation concept and this shared ownership of the resulting resource becomes part of the design process itself. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Designing for experienceaddresses that “a technology’s look, feel, and the messages it conveys are as important to community adoption as its depth of content and sophisticated functionality” (Kahle in Iiyoshi, 2008, p42). All users are quick to decide what resources are worth their time to review and or utilize. One way to address this first impression is to utilize Norman’s three styles of emotional design that “prompt or motivate user reactions to everyday tools” (Kahle in Iiyoshi, 2008, p42). Incorporate behavioral design by addressing the resource’s usability, such as platform intuitiveness and effectiveness. Ensure that the visceral design is appealing, such as the resource’s ability to attract the eye. And determine if the resource meets reflective design ideals, such as the presumed satisfaction that the users receive from utilizing the resource.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__**Instructional Theory**__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Once the design theory principles of access, agency, ownership, participation and experience have been addressed, how does one ensure that open content is effective and suitable for open content learning? In order to ensure that the content designed using Kahle’s design principles is an effective learning tool, creators and publishers must evaluate the instructional method by which the content will be taught (or shared in an open context). The learning theory of Constructivism and the belief that “knowledge is constructed by learners as they attempt to make sense of their experiences” applies well to open content as it accounts for the learner’s role in the learning process. (Driscoll) Driscoll points out that under the constructivist goals of learning, “knowledge must develop and continue to change with the activity of the learner.” The essence of this statement aligns with the open content concept and the intention for the user to be able to re-use the content in the manner and method that best suits his/her specific learning goals. The events and conditions of learning, according to the constructivist theory, that will eventually lead to the successful achievement of learning are: <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Admittedly, some of these above conditions are hard to enact in an open content setting as the instructor does not host the learning and the end-user may be unknown. Without intensive technology use on the part of the content creator and the end-user, complex and realistic learning environments can be hard to replicate. However, open content is well suited to the condition of social negotiation. Users can interact via multiple methods to share their thoughts and help broaden others’ horizons. Ownership in learning and self-awareness of knowledge construction seem to be very applicable to open content, if not simply because the user has taken the time to look for and locate the desired content. This self-motivation and awareness of desired end products fulfills the last two conditions of constructivist learning goals. These conditions of learning are intended to accomplish learning goals of reasoning, critical thinking, retention (as well as understanding and use), cognitive flexibility, self-regulation, and mindful reflection. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Constructivism may list the conditions for learning, but Gagne defines the steps needed to deploy constructivism in a way that is meaningful and challenging. Using Gagne’s Nine Events of Instructionaligned with the conditions and goals of Constructivism may be the ideal match for successful achievement of learning. Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction include: <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> As much as Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction are celebrated as an effective instructional method, it remains to be seen whether or not they can be applied successfully in an open content setting. Not all of the events listed above will translate well into an electronic setting where the instructor is not present and the user (and his or her specific learning goals) is unknown. Stimulating recall of prior knowledge is a challenge as the user and his or her prior learning status is not known to the creator of the open content. Eliciting and assessing performance are also difficult to perform in most settings without the instructor present or without savvy technology. Again, even if the creator is able to utilize this technology, will the user (whether the forseen user or not) be able to accommodate the technology platform? <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Regardless of the actual instructional method chosen to facilitate learning of the open content, all creators must take into account the applicability of the method with the format in which the content will be received. Without the presence of an instructor or guide, the user must be able to successfully understand the content and adapt to its format. In today’s world of ever-changing technology, creators must address how they will provide this content to external users in a way that is standardized, incorporates existing technology, is credible, sustainable and compatible.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Complex and realistic learning environments
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Social negotiation
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Multiple perspectives
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ownership in learning
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Self-awareness of knowledge construction
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Gaining attention
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Informing learners of objectives
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Stimulating recall of prior learning
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Presenting stimulus
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Providing learning guidance
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Eliciting performance
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Assessing performance
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">And enhancing retention and transfer.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__**Standardization of Design**__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">When designing open content materials, designers should have a concept of what tools their target audience will likely use to access it. Internet use continues to increase, and the ways that it is being used continue to change as new users bring new ideas to light. Tools are constantly being developed or modified that change the ways information is accessed, re-used, re-vised, remixed, and re-distributed. Users may use stand-alone software or collaborative online applications to develop and share what they create. How, then, do instructional designers make their open content materials available to the widest audience possible? This can be done using established industry standards for content design, such as the Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM, 2011). <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">SCORM is a technical standard that governs how online learning content communicates with Learning Management Systems (LMS). It standardizes how programmers develop code for learning objects so that it can communicate and function with other e-learning software ( <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[|SCORM]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">, 2011). SCORM standardization provides a means for interoperability of content, reusability, accessibility, adaptability, affordability, and durability of instructional content. This content, known as learning objects, is often small components of a larger learning course that can be re-used again and again in different contexts (Wiley, 2001). Designers should seek SCORM compliance for their learning objects if they desire integration with other vendors, create a large library of learning objects, design learning content that is able to track learner performance or monitor and adapt to the learners’ needs ( <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[|SCORM]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">, 2011). <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">SCORM standards contain three major components: the Content Aggregation Model (CAM), which defines how content is combined to form learning objects; the Runtime Environment, which defines how sharable content objects interact with Learning Management Systems; and Sequencing and Navigation Specification, which defines how objects should be packaged and sequenced ( <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[|Technical Authoring]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">, 2011). Each of these components contains sub-topics that break down the standards in more detail. For example, the CAM provides detailed information concerning requirements for the object’s lifecycle, technical and educational characteristics, rights, relation with other targeted resources, and classification within the system. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">There may be time when SCORM compliance is not applicable to the instructional designer. In cases where content is to be short lived or used only one time in one system, when an LMS is being used that does not track online learning, when the content is simple, such as a static hyperlinked web-page or simple reference material, or when the content is of a non-traditional basis, such as advanced simulations or games, SCORM compliance may not be a good fit ( <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__SCORM website__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">).

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__**Electronic Tools (technology)**__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Web 2.0 technologies have changed the face of the internet, particularly in how it is being used. When the worldwide web was launched in 1993, webpages were relatively static, providing hyperlinks to other pages, and was more of an information delivery system. As technology advanced, the internet has become much more of a social network, with the ability to “facilitate participatory information sharing, inter-operability, user-centered design,and collaboration” ( <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[|Wikipedia]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">, 2011). O’Reilly (2005) discussed several key business issues that relate well to instructional designers when it comes to developing content for web 2.0 applications. First, the internet is made up of a significant percentage of small, niche websites that serve a small audience. O’Reilly recommends reaching for the small niches rather than focusing solely on mass markets. (What would this do for learning objects?) Second, users add value. Users should be seen as active participants rather than simply passive consumers of content. Being active increases the value of the content. Third, copyright and intellectual property laws inhibits content re-usability and stifles innovation. Designers should make sure their content is not blocked by adoption barriers, and that it is designed for “hackability” and “remixability”. Finally, O’Reilly points to designing software (learning objects) above the level of a single device. Cell phones, IPads, and other handheld devices have the capability to interact with web-based learning objects. Designers should take these devices into consideration when developing objects for learning. However, a word of caution about using new technologies from Burbules & Callister (2000) – “Educators need to consider both the risks and promises of new instructional technologies and adopt them only with a healthy skepticism” (as cited in Parrish, 2004). New technologies do not always deliver what is promised, and shifting to one before it is tested has the potential to wreak havoc on content and learning objects. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Today’s technology gives the designer vast numbers of tools that can be used for designing open content material. Text-based learning objects, the most common content available by far, can be developed using HTML, XML, PDF, DOC, RTF or other formats. Images can take numerous formats, including JPEG, GIF, Bitmap, TIFF, PNG, and so on. MP3, Windows Media Player (WMV), and Real Player (RM) formats are common for audio recordings. Video-based objects can be developed using MP4, Windows Media Player (WMV), Real Player (RM), or Quicktime (MOV). Games and simulations may take the form of Flash or Java software format. Many of these file types are supported by tools and applications that are readily (and often freely) downloadable from the internet. While object format may provide access to larger audiences, it does not necessarily have an impact on the level of learning that takes place (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek, 2009). It does, however, have an impact on the opportunity for re-use further down the line. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Format selection for learning objects determines the level of re-usability for end-users. Wiley (2007) identified several key issues when it comes to selecting format. First, some format types do not allow for file modifications to be made, so the users must use the information in an “as-is” state. Second, technical adaptations become difficult when shifting between file formats. Sometimes, data is not presented in the same fashion in one format than in another. Third, linguistic adaptations must be made in cases where the learning objects are to be used in outside countries. Other format selection issues identified by Wiley include cultural and pedagogical adaptation, ability to annotate (mark up) objects, and access to source code. Designers should consider each of these format selection issues when designing open content materials to ensure that their products remain usable and sustainable over time.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__**Credibility**__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The ability to re-use, re-vise, re-mix, and re-distribute content is at the core of materials being considered “open”. Users can take learning objects from a multitude of sources, change them, sequence them in a new way, and deliver them to meet specific needs from their unique audience. Since the material is more likely to be modified from its original makeup, why would designers concern themselves with issues of credibility and sustainability? A simple answer - desirability. Content that is credible and sustainable is more desirable than that content that is not. When designing open content materials, designers need to apply ways to make their product credible and sustainable if it is to be selected by others for re-use. The following paragraphs discuss ways in which designers can develop their learning objects to increase each of these characteristics. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Traditional, closed-environment learning objects typically are designed to meet a specific need within a specific context. The open environment, however, muddies the waters quite a bit for developing open content materials. Building content designed for an open environment that will be accessible to a large audience of unclear experience or focus can be extremely challenging. Making that content credible is a key factor in getting designers to use a particular learning object. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Stanford University has developed a credibility index for web site information that may prove useful (at least in part) to open content material design (Fogg, 2002). The authority of the source is an important means of establishing credibility of a learning object. Objects connected with well-known experts in a field can go a long way in establishing a high level of credibility simply based on their experience they bring to the project. Another way of establishing credibility for learning objects is by providing outside sources that agree with the materials within your object. Designers can provide citations, references, or links to articles, research materials, books, videos, etc. to give support to the ideas and concepts provided in the content. A great deal of credibility comes from the learning object’s overall appearance. Fogg (2002) states that “When designing your site, pay attention to layout, typography, images, consistency issues, and more”. Each of these details can contribute to a professional look to the end product. Other means of establishing credibility include keeping the material updated, using outside or peer reviews of materials, and making the learning object easy to use. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Designers who plan to use open-content materials may desire to conduct an evaluation of the learning object prior to its selection. Kathy Schrock (2011) has developed several ready-made checklists that may prove helpful. The checklists provide a list of critical questions that should be asked about online learning content and delivery systems. In evaluating podcast material, for example, questions focus on the relevance of the material to the user, availability of transcripts, quality of the video/sound and images, links and tags to the podcast and other resources, and so on. These checklists provide a good foundation and a list of critical points that should be addressed in their materials design.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__**Sustainability**__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Sustainability has to do with endurance. The quality of design, its usefulness, functionality, interoperability, and compatibility with current and future technologies are key factors in determining how long learning objects remain viable. The level of interoperability with other systems and the compatibility with various components and software packages can make or break open content material. To design for interoperability, the use of meta-data (such as SCORM) is important to increase the level of sustainability. Meta-data, according to Smith (2004), involves using a collection of core specifications in the design process, including providing a clear description of the material, sequencing and joining learning objects in a logical fashion, establishing communications means between the learning object and learning management systems, and a means to track data. Using these specifications for meta-data allow for cataloging and searchability for learning objects, tracking the ownership and managing rights of the materials, and improved communications ability with industry learning management systems.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__**Compatibility**__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Compatibility can be defined as the ability to work with other devices or systems without modification (Merriam-Webster, 2011). As a part of being sustainable and credible, open content materials need to be compatible with a variety of software and hardware components. Smith (2004) offers a list of suggestions that designers should consider for keeping their materials compatible with a multitude of existing systems. First, designers should plan for a variety of inputs. Users have several means to “communicate” with their devices, including keyboard, mouse, voice, text-only, designated buttons, etc. Tools that allow users to select how they interact with the material gives the user more flexibility in how the tools can be employed. Second, visual and audible formats should have an alternate format. Typed transcripts and written step-by-step instructions may provide other means for using the materials. Third, to reduce any possibility of removal from a site, all material that was not created by the designer should get copyright clearance. A fourth suggestion to increase compatibility is to build learning objects that are self-contained and stand alone; that is, that they do not require additional objects to remain useful. Other suggestions include putting the learning object on a secure and stable computer system (server) that has permanent connection with the internet, keeping contact information, copyright, user licenses, technical requirements, and version information up to date. These concepts allow continual access to specific learning material, allow users to readily identify the owner of the content, and what is needed to use the material. One final recommendation from Smith (2004) is to provide sample assignments, tips, and links to related resources and other support material. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> To provide an example of how designers can create content that is credible and sustainable, one only needs to look at Wikipedia. One of the largest open content projects in existence today, Wikipedia, is an online, free-content encyclopedia that can be edited and contributed to at any time by anyone. It operates under a Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License (CC-BY-SA) as well as the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL). Content designers are the general public and their designs can be re-used, re-vised, re-mixed, and re-distributed at no cost. Wikipedia depends on its users to create, maintain, and validate content, and users are encouraged to update materials that have errors. All revisions are maintained and are viewable to all through the website simply by clicking on a “Page History” link. To maintain credibility and to prevent unwanted “defacement”, Wikipedia deploys software “robots” that can identify and correct obvious issues on the spot. Additionally, users can place desired pages into a “watchlist” so that they can be notified when a page is updated. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Despite its advances in the open environment, Wikipedia is not without its detractors. There are arguments that definitions are not necessarily based in fact, but more so through consensus. There is also the opportunity for incorrect information to be available for long periods of time if not corrected by other users. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">By creating open content material that is credible and sustainable, designers lay the groundwork for a well-developed learning object. Creating meta-data and designing for interoperability and compatibility will go a long way in ensuring that the learning objects function well with established learning management systems and with a wide range of hardware and software components.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__**Summary**__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Open content is more than just creating information and sharing it. For it to be valuable and effective, creators must take into account many concerns. To begin with, creators should be aware of the rights that they allow by assigning content as open under the 4R Framework. Once that is decided, both the design theory and the instructional theory must be addressed. There are many ways to develop content. We discussed using Kahle’s design principles as an effective way to produce content that will be valued by users because it addresses how to create engagement and interaction from the users. We also discussed the instructional theories of Constructivism and Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction. Both are well-founded learning principles that have been utilized successfully to achieve end learning goals. But whether or not they can and should be applied to open content must be decided by the creator. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The responsibility for integral open content is not yet over. Now that the design and instructional theory have been selected and applied, creators must address the design standards to be used in order for users to have access to the content in a meaningful setting. The content must also take into account the current technology available to users so that it is able to be utilized correctly. Lastly, the open content’s credibility, sustainability and compatibility must be addressed. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">None of the above is an easy task, yet all are invaluable pieces of the final product. If we expect users to gravitate towards open content as a functional and effective learning resource, we must take great care to address all of the users’ needs. Those needs are best addressed in the topics we have discussed above when designing or redesigning open content.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__**References**__

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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//SCORM-Sharable Content Object Reference Model// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> [online]. Retrieved June 3, 2011, from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[]__

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">SCORM website: <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[|www.scorm.com]__

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Schrock, K. (2011). <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//Kathy Schrock’s Guide for Educators// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">. Retrieved from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> on June 5, 2011.

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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Smith, R. S. (2004). <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//Guidelines for Authors of Learning Objects// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">. Texas: The New Media <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">Consortium. Retrieved from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__[]__

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Technical Authoring. (2011). <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//The SCORM// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">. Retrieved from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> on May 29, 2011.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Wikipedia Website: <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[|www.wikipedia.com]__

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Wiley, D.A. (2001). <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//The Instructional Use of Learning Objects// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">. Retrieved from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> on May 30, 2011. ==<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Wiley, D.A. (2007). <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//On the Sustainability of Open Educational Resource Initiatives in Higher Education// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">. Retrieved from <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">__[]__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> on June 1, 2011. ==